Por Eduardo Díaz de Guijarro
Comienzo estas líneas a cien años de la Revolución Rusa. En realidad debería haber escrito que precisamente hoy, 7 de noviembre, se cumple su centenario, pero reducir el recuerdo de esa Revolución a los acontecimientos de un día, por importante que haya sido ese día, le resta trascendencia a su significado y magnitud.
La Revolución Rusa había comenzado mucho antes, cuando el poder zarista se debilitó y los obreros y campesinos comenzaron masivamente a tomar conciencia de que debía fundarse una sociedad diferente. Y continuó después, con transformaciones que apuntaban inicialmente a un futuro muy distinto al que lamentablemente tuvo la Unión Soviética durante el stalinismo, hasta llegar a la triste Rusia capitalista de hoy.
Aquellos años de insurrección, que habían vivido un primer clímax en 1905 y se manifestaron plenamente en 1917, mostraron al mundo un proyecto de sociedad que aún hoy genera lecturas opuestas, por un lado esperanzadas y por otro temerosas: el reemplazo del sistema capitalista por otro, no basado en la explotación y el lucro sino en la distribución justa de la riqueza y en una democracia plena.
Cien años después, al evocar estos hechos o ante las múltiples situaciones conflictivas de la vida social, aún existen quienes afirman que la Revolución Rusa fue un acto injustificado e innecesario de violencia, y que los bolcheviques aplicaron a la fuerza el concepto inventado por Marx de una “lucha de clases” que en realidad no existe. Porque el capitalismo es justo, dicen; porque es el único sistema que permite que la economía funcione y que la riqueza se distribuya equitativamente; porque los empresarios y los trabajadores pueden coexistir en armonía y, más aún, se necesitan mutuamente. Y porque el sistema capitalista ofrece, a través de sus diversos mecanismos representativos, la mayor garantía posible de democracia.
Si esto fuera cierto, ¿cómo se explica entonces que, ante la toma del poder por un movimiento tan tremendamente masivo, que intentaba aplicar una democracia plena, no sólo la nobleza y la burguesía rusa hayan reaccionado organizando un Ejército Blanco para atacarlo sino que las catorce mayores potencias imperialistas, incluyendo Estados Unidos, Gran Bretaña, Francia, Italia y Japón invadieran Rusia por todos los puntos cardinales intentando ahogarla? Porque la Revolución, y esto es un hecho generalmente poco mencionado, había sido muy poco violenta.
Frente a la magnitud del cambio social en juego y frente a la guerra desencadenada después, fue en realidad una Revolución pacífica, porque a los obreros y los campesinos organizados en los consejos de delegados o soviets se sumaron los soldados que, en lugar de reprimirlos, los apoyaron. Masivamente, guarniciones enteras entrenadas para participar en la guerra interimperialista que se estaba desarrollando en ese momento en Europa y para reprimir a los trabajadores se plegaron a la Revolución, reconociendo que ellos también eran parte del pueblo. ¿Qué mayor democracia que esa?
Si los restos de la nobleza, los empresarios rusos y la gran burguesía imperialista reaccionaron de una manera tan violenta fue porque reconocieron que ese nuevo gobierno, surgido indudablemente de la voluntad mayoritaria del pueblo ruso, les quitaba sus privilegios y les impedía seguir enriqueciéndose a costa del trabajo y el hambre de los pobres. Las clases dominantes habían ejercido antes la violencia para explotarlos y luego la ejercieron para negarles el derecho a gobernarse a sí mismos.
Si bien el Ejército Blanco y las tropas imperialistas fueron derrotados por el Ejército Rojo, en Rusia no se logró consolidar la nueva sociedad. No es éste el lugar para realizar un balance detallado, pero baste con señalar que se trataba de uno de los países capitalistas más débiles de Europa; que la revolución en Alemania, que hubiera influido de una manera decisiva en el equilibrio mundial, fracasó dos años después; que los dirigentes bolcheviques cometieron errores, centralizando excesivamente el poder; que la muerte de Lenin y el ascenso de Stalin transformaron el impulso inicial en una burocracia represiva que terminaría de llevar el proceso a un fracaso (1).
Pero lo que queda como saldo de aquella admirable Revolución es la constatación de que, a pesar de sus altisonantes declamaciones sobre los derechos colectivos y el ejercicio de la democracia, la burguesía no puede admitir un gobierno de las mayorías populares y no puede admitir un sistema diferente al capitalismo, porque su riqueza se basa en el lucro y en la explotación. Y que la violencia no nace de los de abajo sino que es aplicada por los de arriba para mantener su poder.
Pero pasaron cien años, y el capitalismo…
Desde los hechos que rememoramos transcurrió un tumultuoso siglo. Y fue muy poco lo que quedó del ensayo de nueva sociedad iniciado en 1917 en Rusia, luego impuesto en Europa Oriental al fin de la Segunda Guerra Mundial y reeditado en China en 1949 y en Cuba en 1959. Hoy el capitalismo impera sobre casi la totalidad de los países del mundo. Solo en la heroica isla del Caribe, y con tremendas dificultades, subsiste una forma social asentada sobre bases diferentes.
La lectura que suele hacerse sobre este hecho es que el capitalismo es el único sistema viable. Que la naturaleza humana hace inevitable que sean el individualismo, la competencia y el afán de lucro y beneficio personal los que muevan las ruedas de la economía y el progreso y mantengan la sociedad en equilibrio.
Pero, ¿progreso, equilibrio? La situación del mundo en 2017 puede resumirse con algunos datos escalofriantes:
– Desde 2015, el 1% más rico de la población mundial posee más riqueza que el resto del planeta.
– Actualmente, ocho personas (ocho hombres, en realidad) poseen la misma riqueza que 3.600 millones de personas (la mitad de la humanidad) (2).
Pero lo peor no son estos datos sino la tendencia con la que ha ido variando a lo largo de las últimas décadas la concentración de la riqueza. “El 50% más pobre de la población nunca ha poseído más del 1,5% de la riqueza total desde el año 2000, y el 1% más rico nunca ha tenido menos del 46%”, pero en el año 2010 eran 388 las personas que acumulaban una riqueza igual a la de la mitad más pobre de la población mundial; en 2014 bajaron a 85, en 2016 fueron 62 y ahora son tan solo 8 (3).
En 2015, las diez mayores empresas del mundo (entre ellas Wall Mart, Shell y Apple) tuvieron una facturación superior a los ingresos públicos de 180 países juntos (4).
El capitalismo utilizó múltiples recursos a lo largo del siglo para llegar a la situación presente. Los más impactantes han sido las guerras, que costaron millones de muertos y ciudades y países enteros arrasados por los bombardeos, pero la violencia física fue acompañada por una generalizada penetración ideológica y por maniobras económicas de diverso tipo. Los gobiernos están cada vez más asociados a las grandes empresas y las favorecen con leyes especiales, exenciones impositivas y tratos diferenciales.
¿Cómo pueden explicarse, si no, las fabulosas ganancias de Apple, una de las empresas más grandes del mundo, por la venta de sus teléfonos “inteligentes”? En 2010, el costo de las materias primas del iPhone 4 representó el 21,9% del precio cobrado por ese smartphone a los distribuidores y la mano de obra el 5,3%, quedando para la empresa un beneficio del 73% (5).
Por un lado, salarios bajísimos; por el otro, una legislación que permite la fijación monopólica de precios de venta abusivos.
Cuando un trabajador argentino reclama por su salario suele tener como referencia la inflación, la necesidad al menos de mantener cierto poder adquisitivo con relación a lo que ganaba en años anteriores. Si es mujer, además, debe pelear para que su trabajo sea remunerado en igualdad de condiciones con los hombres y debe defenderse de los acosos y las agresiones que recibe sólo por ser mujer. Sin embargo, todos esos cálculos resultan insignificantes cuando las sumas en juego se comparan con las desigualdades extremas que genera el capitalismo:
La empresa matriz de la marca de ropa Zara reporta a Amancio Ortega, el segundo hombre más rico del mundo, dividendos anuales por valor de 1.108 millones de euros, una cifra que multiplica por 800.000 el salario anual de un trabajador de una empresa textil proveedora de Zara en la India. Con el agravante de que la mayoría de la mano de obra textil es femenina.
Y hay más: aún con esas ganancias y diferencias insultantes, existe un consenso internacional entre los gobiernos capitalistas para permitir una economía paralela que evade sus propias leyes, de modo que una parte importante de las ganancias no pague impuestos: las empresas offshore y los paraísos fiscales.
Se calcula que hasta el 30% del patrimonio financiero de África se encuentra en paraísos fiscales, lo cual supone para los países africanos una pérdida fiscal estimada en 14.000 millones de dólares al año. Esta cantidad sería suficiente para garantizar la atención sanitaria a madres y niños, lo cual podría salvar la vida de cuatro millones de niños al año y permitiría contratar a profesores suficientes para escolarizar a todos los niños y niñas africanos. Se estima que la suma de los ingresos fiscales que pierden África, Asia y América Latina a causa de la riqueza oculta en paraísos fiscales asciende a aproximadamente 70.000 millones de dólares anuales (6).
La prensa y los medios de comunicación nos quieren hacer creer que África es un continente extremadamente pobre. Sí, en efecto, lo es, pero no porque su naturaleza no sea productiva ni porque sus pobladores no trabajen esforzadamente. La mayoría de los africanos son extremadamente pobres porque las grandes empresas se llevan sus ganancias muy lejos de ese maravilloso continente y, al no pagar los impuestos, producen hambre, miseria y desesperanza.
¿Era esta situación previsible?
Apoyándose en el fracaso de la mayoría de los intentos de construcción del socialismo, algunos analistas sostienen que la realidad atroz que hemos descrito en el apartado anterior es fruto de la ambición personal de algunos especuladores y que puede ser regulada mediante apropiados controles gubernamentales, sin necesidad de modificar el sistema. Esta idea se ha impuesto a través de múltiples variantes políticas que proponen reformas parciales o alianzas y acuerdos entre las clases, que permitirían resolver las crisis y atenuar las desigualdades. Incluso prominentes políticos han exhortado a los empresarios a defender un “capitalismo en serio”, sin ganancias abusivas ni corrupción, según ellos posible.
Sin embargo, no parece que la creciente desigualdad social sea un “efecto secundario” o un “exceso” provocado por burgueses “malos” o “equivocados”. Carlos Marx y Federico Engels explicaron hace ciento setenta años cuál era la esencia del capitalismo, que en aquella época se consolidaba y comenzaba a mostrar los primeros síntomas de crisis. Señalaron que la apropiación por parte del empresario de una parte del fruto del trabajo de sus obreros, la plusvalía, era un mecanismo que crecería con el avance de la historia hasta límites incontrolables. Incluso percibieron, ya en aquella época que nos parece remota, lo que hoy llamamos “globalización”, el papel de los gobiernos como garantes del sistema y la miseria creciente de los trabajadores:
Impulsada por la necesidad de mercados siempre nuevos, la burguesía invade el mundo entero. Necesita penetrar por todas partes, establecerse en todos los sitios, crear por doquier medios de comunicación […] La burguesía (…) ha aglomerado la población, centralizado los medios de producción y concentrado la propiedad en un pequeño número de manos. La consecuencia fatal de estos cambios ha sido la centralización política (…) El Gobierno moderno no es sino un comité administrativo de los negocios de la clase burguesa (…) El obrero moderno, al contrario, lejos de elevarse con el progreso de la industria, desciende siempre más; por debajo mismo de las condiciones de vida de su propia clase. […] Las condiciones burguesas de producción y de cambio (…), semejan al mago que no sabe dominar las potencias infernales que ha evocado (7).
En el siglo XXI, los magos que continúan evocando las potencias infernales del capitalismo han puesto en peligro no sólo el bienestar de la humanidad sino la habitabilidad misma del planeta en el que vivimos. No se trata de excesos. Esta situación es, precisamente, la consecuencia del “capitalismo en serio”.
Nosotros (los trabajadores) y ellos (los burgueses)
La contradicción entre las clases sociales no es, pues, un invento del marxismo, sino una triste realidad impuesta por quienes detentan el poder económico y político.
De un lado está la enorme mayoría de la población mundial: los trabajadores asalariados de la industria, de los servicios, de la minería, del campo, de las oficinas; los sectores medios empobrecidos: los docentes, los pequeños comerciantes, los trabajadores independientes, los cooperativistas, los profesionales pauperizados, los jubilados y pensionados, los que viven de subsidios estatales, los desocupados. Del otro lado, un puñado de millonarios cuyas ganancias son tanto mayores cuanto mayores sean las carencias del resto de la humanidad. De un lado estamos “nosotros”; del otro, “ellos”.
Hace algunos años aparecieron ciertas interpretaciones utópicas sobre cómo resolver este conflicto. Nuevos movimientos políticos europeos, que han logrado captar numerosas simpatías dentro y fuera de sus países, proponen una salida conciliadora, confiando en una forma de “coexistencia pacífica” entre “ellos” y “nosotros”. En Construir pueblo, un libro de Íñigo Errejón y Chantal Mouffe, esta profesora de teoría política sostiene:
Me parece fundamental entender que la política consiste en la creación de un “nosotros” y que eso implica necesariamente la distinción de un “ellos”. Para mí la tarea democrática no es tratar de construir un nosotros completamente inclusivo, un nosotros sin un ellos, sino de construir la relación nosotros/ellos de una manera que sea compatible con la democracia pluralista (8).
Este planteo forma parte de la orientación de Podemos en España y ha sido tomado por algunos militantes argentinos. Errejón y Mouffe no están discutiendo cuáles son los caminos para eliminar la confrontación entre las clases. Están sosteniendo que el socialismo es imposible, que nunca dejarán de existir los enfrentamientos “nosotros/ellos”, y que a lo máximo que pueden aspirar los grupos “antagónicos” (de enemigos) o “agónicos” (de adversarios, según su propio léxico) es a coexistir en una “democracia pluralista”, algo así como un sistema parlamentario donde burgueses y obreros, dictadores y pueblos oprimidos discutan y resuelvan sus diferencias con “construcciones discursivas”, sin que exista coacción ni manejo unilateral de ninguno de los resortes del poder. O sea un sistema capitalista sin guerras, sin ejército, sin policía, sin leyes que legitimen la explotación, sin corrupción económica, sin paraísos fiscales, sin manipulación de los medios de comunicación, sin discriminación de género ni racismo ni ninguna otra de las consecuencias que a lo largo de la historia se ha visto que producen las sociedades donde impera la explotación de una clase por otra.
Esta propuesta se parece a la de los antiguos socialistas utópicos que imaginaban mundos felices para un futuro indeterminado o, peor aún, a la concepción cristiana de que “pobres habrá siempre” y que la felicidad humana solo es posible después de la muerte. Una idea esta última muy diferente incluso a las versiones más terrenales del cristianismo, basadas en la prédica del amor al prójimo, la solidaridad y la defensa de la justicia.
Un argumento que también suele invocarse para alentar cierto tipo de “soluciones intermedias” es la posibilidad de que algunos sectores de la burguesía vinculados al consumo interno puedan jugar un papel “progresista” y ayuden a combatir al “capitalismo salvaje”. Es innegable que la política es muy compleja y que, en determinadas circunstancias, pueden producirse acercamientos o acciones unitarias entre diferentes sectores sociales. Pero depositar confianza en esta perspectiva llevaría también a transitar terrenos pantanosos.
En un interesante trabajo sobre los estrechos márgenes del capitalismo nacional, Vibek Chibber (9) sostiene que en todos los países del Tercer Mundo donde los gobiernos “progresistas” intentaron controlar a los capitalistas locales para generar procesos de sustitución de importaciones o de tipo desarrollista, finalmente los capitalistas se organizaron políticamente contra ellos e impusieron sus propios criterios de rentabilidad. Así ocurrió en 1955 con la llamada “Revolución Libertadora” en la Argentina luego del peronismo, así ocurrió recientemente en Brasil con el golpe contra Dilma Roussef y así está ocurriendo en el presente en nuestro país con el macrismo. Las excepciones se dieron solo cuando los trabajadores pudieron organizarse en forma autónoma para contrapesar el poder de los empresarios, como ocurrió en Venezuela, al menos durante la etapa ascendente del chavismo y la organización comunal. Si no se produce esa organización autónoma invariablemente los capitalistas imponen sus propios criterios, influyen sobre los gobiernos o los derriban, invierten allí donde la rentabilidad es mayor sin importarles el bienestar del pueblo, o se asocian a las multinacionales, que dominan junto con los bancos la economía mundial.
Una alianza con estos sectores del capital nacional sin la debida autonomía y un estado de movilización popular no puede llevar más que a un fracaso.
Un peligro similar se deriva del uso abusivo de la táctica de apoyar al “mal menor” en los procesos electorales. Siendo la burguesía la clase que monopoliza el poder y posee recursos de diverso tipo para perpetuarse, “las elecciones del mal menor pueden (…) tener costos que no alcanzan a ser previstos inicialmente” (10). Casos como el Laborismo inglés o el Partido Demócrata en Estados Unidos ofrecen ejemplos dramáticos de esos peligros.
¿Qué nos dice la historia?
La historia ha demostrado que estos caminos son infructuosos, que los atajos y la búsqueda de soluciones intermedias suelen conducir más bien a un fortalecimiento de los sectores dominantes.
Toda vez que se ha logrado contener el avance desenfrenado del capitalismo o se han obtenido triunfos sobre sus representantes más notables, como en el caso de algunas dictaduras latinoamericanas, no ha sido mediante acuerdos parlamentarios sino mediante movilizaciones masivas de los trabajadores.
La Revolución Cubana es el mejor ejemplo. Pero no solamente el derrocamiento de Batista en 1959 sino su primer gran capítulo, generalmente ignorado, que fue la derrota de la dictadura de Gerardo Machado en 1933.
Ya desde la década de 1920 la clase obrera cubana era una de las más organizadas del continente debido a la concentración de capitales yanquis en las centrales azucareras y también a la temprana organización sindical en las industrias del tabaco, gráficos, ferroviarios, empleados de comercio y otros. El apoyo de brillantes intelectuales a la causa popular potenció la fuerza de los trabajadores. Uno de los máximos ejemplos fue Julio Antonio Mella, continuador de la Reforma Universitaria de Córdoba en la Universidad de La Habana, fundador del Partido Comunista Cubano y pertinaz luchador hasta su muerte, asesinado por la dictadura de Machado en 1929 cuando solo tenía 26 años. Mella sostenía que eran los trabajadores los que debían protagonizar los cambios revolucionarios para acabar con la explotación capitalista. Señalaba también que las clases medias podían ser aliadas de los asalariados, pero que no podían depositarse en ellas expectativas desmedidas:
Nosotros somos partidarios de trabajar en las organizaciones susceptibles de revolucionarse, en todos los organismos que cuentan con masa obrera y campesina o elementos revolucionarios… Pero no estamos dispuestos a trabajar también, por ejemplo, en las oficinas de la Bolsa de Nueva York para “obtener mejoras para el proletariado. […] No puede haber un régimen social basado únicamente sobre las clases medias, como no se levanta un edificio sobre arenas movedizas (11).
La prematura muerte de Mella no fue obstáculo para que las movilizaciones crecieran. En marzo de 1930 se declara una huelga y paran 200.000 trabajadores. En agosto de 1933 una huelga general revolucionaria provoca la caída del dictador Machado, “los sindicatos se fortalecen y ganan adherentes; en el ejército los soldados y suboficiales se niegan a reprimir al pueblo y confraternizan con la muchedumbre” (12).
Pero el éxito fue parcial y tuvieron que pasar veintiséis años para que Cuba protagonizara finalmente un cambio de sistema económico y social.
La Revolución de 1959 no fue, como muchas veces se quiere hacer creer, fruto solamente de la increíble hazaña de un puñado de guerrilleros que desembarcaron en una playa del oriente cubano y desde la Sierra Maestra lograron derrocar a Batista. Tampoco fue el fruto de la supuesta radicalización política de un sector de la burguesía nacional cubana.
Ya en 1952, mientras participaba en las movilizaciones estudiantiles contra la dictadura de Batista, Fidel Castro proclamó en un periódico clandestino su “fe ciega en las masas” (13). Según explicó él mismo, el grupo armado que organizó para atacar el Cuartel Moncada en Santiago de Cuba el 26 de julio de 1953 no tenía como objetivo enfrentar a las tropas de esa guarnición sino lanzar desde allí una exhortación dirigida al pueblo y a los propios soldados, llamándolos a la insurrección general (14). Es interesante conocer la composición social de ese grupo: 44 eran trabajadores de fábricas y talleres, 33 eran oficinistas y empleados y solo 13 eran estudiantes. El resto, hasta un total de 147, era de ocupaciones varias (15).
El asalto fracasó, aunque afortunadamente su dirigente no fue muerto sino que fue detenido y sometido a juicio. El alegato que redactó en su propia defensa, La historia me absolverá, es un ejemplo de programa político democrático, pues convirtió a sus acusadores en acusados, logrando desde la cárcel que sus compañeros imprimieran cien mil ejemplares para ser repartidos en todo el país (16).
Liberado en 1955, Castro fundó el Movimiento 26 de Julio que, dirigido por Frank Pais, se extendió en todo el país y por las más diversas capas sociales mientras él, desde Mexico, organizaba el grupo que iniciaría la guerrilla en la Sierra Maestra. En diciembre de ese mismo año, luego de una huelga de los bancarios de La Habana que duró dos meses, se produjo una huelga general de los obreros azucareros en reclamo por el pago de un suplemento salarial que terminó con una victoria parcial (17). En julio de 1957 Pais fue asesinado por la policía en Santiago de Cuba. El cortejo fúnebre que acompañó los restos de este dirigente abarcó catorce cuadras, mientras se cerraban los comercios y se iniciaba una huelga y paro cívico que duraron cinco días.
En la Sierra Maestra, la guerrilla se afirmó gracias al estrecho vínculo entre los pequeños campesinos de la zona y los obreros azucareros. Así se llegó a la derrota del desmoralizado ejército regular. El 1º de enero de 1959 Batista huyó del país. Los yanquis y los mandos militares intentaron nombrar una Junta de Gobierno, pero a partir del día siguiente se inició una huelga general que se extendió hasta que Camilo Cienfuegos y el Che Guevara llegaron a La Habana y lograron la rendición del ejército.
Poco después, Fidel Castro afirmaba: “Fue la huelga general la que destruyó la última maniobra de los enemigos del pueblo; fue la huelga general la que nos entregó las fortalezas de la capital de la República; y fue la huelga general la que dio todo el poder a la Revolución” (18).
Conclusiones
Estos ejemplos muestran cómo la acción de los trabajadores y las masas populares constituyen las fuerzas decisivas en las grandes luchas contra el capitalismo, y cómo los acuerdos con sectores burgueses o los intentos de conciliación entre las clases no condujeron a cambios decisivos.
La lucha de clases no es un “invento” de Marx. Es la consecuencia lamentable de la opresión que una minoría de seres humanos ejerce sobre la inmensa mayoría, apropiándose de la riqueza y sometiendo a los pueblos a formas indignas de vida o, peor aún, a la muerte por hambre, por falta de atención médica, por la contaminación del aire que respiramos y por guerras imperialistas que destruyen ciudades enteras.
¿Es posible, como dicen Errejón y Mouffe, que en lugar de intentar un mundo sin “ellos”, o sea un mundo no capitalista, lo que haya que hacer sea construir una relación “nosotros/ellos” para convivir armónicamente en una democracia pluralista con los explotadores? ¿O un intento tan ingenuo como ese puede terminar más bien en un mundo de “ellos sin nosotros”, o sea con un puñado de súper ricos controlando el planeta y un “nosotros” reducido a la miseria absoluta y la barbarie?
Hoy en todos los países capitalistas, incluida la Argentina, los grandes empresarios explotan a los trabajadores, controlan la economía, difunden su ideología a través de los medios masivos de comunicación, monopolizan el uso de la fuerza a través de la policía y los ejércitos. Es necesario que el conjunto de los trabajadores comprenda que sólo su unión y su rechazo unánime a este estado de cosas puede abrir las puertas a una sociedad mejor.
Cómo será esa sociedad futura, solidaria y sin explotadores ni explotados, no lo sabemos; pero lo que sí podemos afirmar es que “la liberación de los trabajadores será obra de los trabajadores mismos” (19).
Pretender otra cosa, exagerar la importancia de los procesos electorales, entrar al mundillo de las maniobras para ganar posiciones en los pasillos o en la trastienda de la política, buscar alianzas con sectores burgueses que se declaran democráticos mientras comparten con el resto de su clase los abusos de poder, la extracción de plusvalía a los trabajadores, la corrupción económica, la discriminación de género, las mentiras y las maniobras de todo tipo es tomar un camino equivocado. Es perseguir una ilusión, dejarse llevar por espejismos que la propia burguesía crea para su provecho.
Por eso es correcta la orientación que fijó el Manifiesto Fundacional de Patria Grande en 2014:
«La contradicción entre el capital y el trabajo es la articuladora central de nuestra sociedad contemporánea. Por lo tanto, en cualquier proceso de liberación es fundamental el protagonismo de la clase que vive del salario, que no solo se gana el pan todos los días con sus labores cotidianas en el transporte, los servicios, la industria, el comercio, la banca, la construcción, la educación, el empleo público, el cultivo o las mil y una changas sino que, además, sostiene con su trabajo a quienes concentran los recursos económicos y políticos» (20).
Tomar otro rumbo sería, en palabras de Julio Antonio Mella, pretender levantar un edificio sobre arenas movedizas.
13 de noviembre de 2017
[1] Una interesante aproximación sobre los motivos del fracaso de la Unión Soviética puede consultarse en Paresh Chattopadhyay: “El mito del socialismo del siglo XX y la permanente relevancia de Carlos Marx”, en Marcello Musto (editor), De regreso a Marx, Editorial Octubre, Buenos Aires, 2015.
[2] Ver “Una economía para el 99%”, Informe de OXFAM, enero 2017. Los datos citados aquí provienen de Credit Suisse (2016), “Global Wealth Databook 2016” y de una elaboración de OXFAM a partir de la lista de milmillonarios de Forbes y de datos de Credit Suisse. OXFAM es una entidad con sede en Oxford, UK, que nuclea a veinte organizaciones no gubernamentales para luchar contra la pobreza.
[3] Ver también “Una economía al servicio del 1%”, Informe de OXFAM, 18 de enero de 2016.
[4] Global Justice (2016)
[5] OXFAM (2017), op. cit., datos de Kenneth H. Kraemer, Greg Linden y Jason Dedrick (2011).
[6] OXFAM (2016), “Una economía al servicio del 1%”. Los datos fueron tomados de G. Zucman (2014): Taxing across borders: tracking personal wealth and corporate profits”, Journal of Economic Perspectives; Organización Mundial de la Salud (2014): Alianza para la salud de la madre, del recién nacido y del niño, y University of Washington: Investment Framework for Women´s and Children´s Health in Africa”
[7] Fragmentos del Capítulo 1 del Manifiesto Comunista, de Carlos Marx y Federico Engels, 1848.
[8] Íñigo Errejón y Chantal Mouffe: Construir Pueblo; Icaria Editorial, Barcelona, 2015, p. 50.
[9] Ver Vibek Chibber: El capitalismo nacional en el Tercer Mundo; en Sasha Lilley, “Combatiendo al Capital. Diálogos con pensadores de izquierda en un tiempo tumultuoso”, Editorial Universitaria Villa María y Editorial Octubre, 2016
[10] Las limitaciones del apoyo político o electoral a ciertos sectores burgueses y, más en general, la teoría del mal menor, están desarrolladas en un interesante trabajo de Víctor Wallis: “El mal menor como argumento y táctica, desde Marx hasta el presente”, en Marcello Musto (editor): De regreso a Marx, Editorial Octubre, Buenos Aires, 2015.
[11] Las citas de Julio A. Mella fueron tomadas de “Julio A. Mella. El despertar revolucionario en Cuba”, Historia de América en el Siglo XX Nº 7, Centro Editor de América Latina, Buenos Aires, 1971, págs. 186 y 187.
[12] Idem, pág. 188
[13] Sánchez Otero, Germán: “El Moncada, inicio de la Revolución Cubana”, suplemento de Punto Final, Santiago de Chile, 18 de julio de 1972.
[14] Ver Fidel Castro: “La Revolución Cubana, 1953 – 1962”, Ediciones Era, Mexico, 1988, y Marta Harnecker: “Fidel Castro: del Moncada a la victoria”, Editorial Contrapunto, Buenos Aires, 1987.
[15] James Petras: “Clase, estado y poder en el tercer mundo”, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Buenos Aires, 1993.
[16] El alegato “La historia me absolverá” puede consultarse en: http://bureau.comandantina.com/archivos/La%20Historia%20me%20absolvera.pdf
[17] Instituto de Historia del Movimiento Comunista y de la Revolución Socialista de Cuba: “Historia del Movimiento Obrero Cubano: 1865 – 1958”, Volumen 2, Editorial Política, La Habana, 1985.
[18] Fidel Castro: Discurso del 18 de noviembre de 1959 ante el X Congreso de la Confederación de Trabajadores de Cuba (CTC), citado en la “Historia del Movimiento Obrero Cubano: 1865 – 1958” (op. cit.) y también en el Manual de Capacitación Cívica, MINFAR, La Habana, 1960, citado por Luis Vitale: “Cuba, de la colonia a la revolución”, Ril Editores, Santiago de Chile, 1999.
[19] Con esta frase comienzan los “Estatutos Generales de la Asociación Internacional de los Trabajadores”, redactados por Carlos Marx en 1864 y publicados en Londres en 1871. Se pueden consultar en https://www.marxists.org/espanol/m-e/1860s/1864-est.htm
[20] “Manifiesto fundacional de Patria Grande”, Buenos Aires, 2014, págs. 8 y 9.
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## A Brief History of Harvard University
Founded in 1636, **Harvard University** is the oldest and one of the most prestigious higher education institutions in the United States. Located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard has built a global reputation for academic excellence, groundbreaking research, and influential alumni. From its humble beginnings as a small college established to educate clergy, it has evolved into a world-leading university that shapes the future across various disciplines.
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The university continues to cultivate future leaders who shape industries and drive global progress.
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Harvard offers a **rich student experience**, blending academics with vibrant traditions, including:
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– **Annual Primal Scream:** A unique tradition where students de-stress by running through Harvard Yard before finals!
– **The Harvard-Yale Game:** A historic football rivalry that unites alumni and students.
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Beyond academics, Harvard drives change in **global policy, economics, and technology**. The university’s research impacts healthcare, sustainability, and artificial intelligence, with partnerships across industries worldwide. **Harvard’s endowment**, the largest of any university, allows it to fund scholarships, research, and public initiatives, ensuring a legacy of impact for generations.
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